Aggression in sport is a topic that sparks debate among coaches, athletes, parents, and even audiences. Too often, aggression is described only in terms of misconduct or emotional loss of control. But recent sport-psychology research suggests a far more nuanced picture; one where certain forms of aggression may actually support performance, focus, and competitive intensity.
A particularly illuminating study by Sofia & Cruz (2017) helps us understand how anger and aggression function in athletes across different sports, competitive levels, and success categories. Their findings highlight why aggression should not be dismissed, but rather understood, regulated, and when appropriate, strategically utilised.
Aggression Isn’t Always Negative: Understanding the Psychology Behind It
Sofia & Cruz (2017) emphasise that anger is a normal emotion in sport, often triggered by what Lazarus (2000) describes as a “demeaning offense” a threat to the athlete’s ego, identity, or goals. When athletes experience provocation, an opponent’s action, a referee’s call, or a perceived injustice, aggression can become a natural response. However, the critical point from the research is this:
Not all aggression is the same.
What matters most is how anger is processed and how aggression is expressed.
Instrumental vs. Hostile Aggression
- Instrumental aggression is goal-directed, tactical, and controlled.
- Hostile aggression is driven by anger, frustration, or the desire to harm.
The study supports the idea that it is the instrumental, regulated form that can enhance competitive performance; not the hostile, uncontrolled version.
Key Findings From the Research
Sofia & Cruz (2017) surveyed 231 athletes across a variety of sports and competitive categories. Their findings shed light on why aggression often emerges—and how athletes can benefit from managing it well.
1. Athletes in High-Contact Sports Display More Aggression
This does not indicate a lack of control. Instead, it reflects the demands of the sporting environment. Contact sports often require assertiveness and controlled force as part of their tactical framework. In these settings, aggression becomes a performance tool rather than a disciplinary problem.
2. Younger or Lower-Category Athletes Show Higher Aggression
This suggests that aggression is partly developmental. As athletes mature—and gain more exposure to structured competitive environments—they typically learn better emotional regulation and decision-making.
3. “Success Level” Did Not Predict Aggression
Perhaps surprisingly, high-performing athletes were not more or less aggressive than lower-performing ones. This reinforces that aggression is linked more to sport characteristics, provocation, and emotional processing than to winning or losing.
4. Provocation and Rumination Are Strong Predictors of Aggressive Behaviour
This is one of the study’s most important insights.
- Provocation (being pushed, fouled, insulted) increases anger and aggressive responses.
- Anger rumination—replaying a provocation in one’s mind—intensifies the impulse to act aggressively.
This highlights the essential role of cognitive regulation in preventing hostile aggression and maintaining controlled, performance-enhancing aggression.
Why Controlled Aggression Can Be Good for Performance
1. It Enhances Competitive Focus
When aggression is channelled properly, it sharpens attention and intensity. The emotional energy generated by anger or provocation can push an athlete into a highly focused, ready-to-perform state.
2. It Supports Tactical Execution in Many Sports
In rugby, hockey, basketball, and football, assertive behaviour is an integral part of strategy. Athletes who can use controlled aggression effectively are often more successful in fulfilling their tactical roles.
3. It Builds Psychological Presence and Dominance
Athletes who assert themselves early often set the psychological tone of a competition. Controlled aggression signals confidence, resilience, and competitive readiness.
4. It Can Be a Healthy Emotional Outlet
Instead of suppressing anger—which can lead to internal tension—athletes who learn to channel it constructively can regulate emotions more effectively. This aligns with Sofia & Cruz’s findings on how anger expression is shaped by provocation and cognitive processing.
How Coaches and Practitioners Can Support Healthy Aggression
Coaches and practitioners can support healthy aggression by helping athletes understand the emotional and situational triggers that commonly provoke aggressive responses, enabling them to anticipate and manage these moments with greater self-awareness. Addressing anger rumination, an important predictor of maladaptive aggression identified by Sofia and Cruz (2017) is essential, as athletes who learn not to replay provocations or perceived injustices are better able to maintain composure and channel their emotions productively. Integrating emotional-regulation strategies into regular training, such as breathing routines, pre-performance self-talk, and imagery, further empowers athletes to convert anger or heightened arousal into controlled, performance-enhancing intensity. Equally important is developing clear role expectations; when athletes understand when assertive behaviour is tactically beneficial and when it becomes counterproductive, they are more likely to regulate their actions in alignment with team objectives. Finally, coaches should view aggression regulation as a developmental skill, offering younger or less experienced athletes structured guidance and consistent feedback so they can transition from reactive, impulsive responses to more deliberate, instrumental aggression that supports performance.
Conclusion
Aggression in sport is not simply good or bad, it is complex, multifaceted, and deeply tied to emotional, cognitive, and situational factors. The work of Sofia & Cruz (2017) demonstrates that aggression becomes problematic only when it is unregulated. On the other hand, controlled, instrumental aggression can enhance performance, strengthen competitive presence, and drive athletes toward peak execution.
Rather than eliminating aggression, the goal should be to understand it, regulate it, and harness it—turning a traditionally misunderstood concept into a legitimate psychological asset.
References
- Sofia, R., & Cruz, J. F. (2017). Unveiling anger and aggression in sports: The effects of type of sport, competitive category and success level. Revista de Psicología del Deporte, 26(2), 21–28.
- Lazarus, R. S. (2000). How emotions influence performance in competitive sport. The Sport Psychologist, 14, 229–252.
- Maxwell, J. P., Moores, E., Visek, A., & colleagues (2007–2009). Studies on anger and aggression in sport (as cited in Sofia & Cruz, 2017)
